Father of psychology

Brain research is the study of mental life, both of its wonders and their conditions. The marvels are such things like emotions, wants, perceptions, thinking, choices, and such. When these are marvels are hastily thought of, their assortment and multifaceted nature leaves a confused impact on the observer.Advertising We will compose a custom article test on Father of brain research explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More Different people attempted to sort out these wonders so as to think of a formally dressed order, the advanced brain science. Because of the high number of supporters of this field, the real establishing ‘father of psychology’ is contested. This paper looks at various key figures related with the brain research. The paper, in any case, singles out one figure that best fits the portrayal of being the ‘father of psychology’. Two of the most punctual originators of brain science are Plato (428-347 B.C.E) and Aristotle (384-322). T hese two acclaimed Greek logicians had extensive impact on Western idea. Albeit nor is most popular for his mental thoughts, both have affected Western originations of the psyche. For example, Plato accepted that reality lay in unique ideas, or structures that could be gotten a handle on through explanation alone. He contends that the information we get from our faculties is temporary and, along these lines, illusionary. The thought of a natural mental capacity to get a handle on ideas and classifications is reliable with current subjective brain science and neuroscience, despite the fact that the excusal of ‘sense data’ isn't. Aristotle was abundantly enchanted of the characteristic world and accepted information to originate from precise, coherent thinking about our perceptions of nature. He held that the limit with regards to intelligent thinking is inborn, however the substance of our insight must be gotten a handle on through our faculties. Along these lines, Arist otle foreseen the establishments of present day science. Plato additionally had thoughts regarding feelings and passionate control that foreseen Freud’s speculations of the self image and the id. Plato’s three-section division of the spirit into craving, reason, and temper has been connected to Freud’s division of the brain into id, sense of self, and superego.Advertising Looking for article on brain research? How about we check whether we can support you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Plato likewise had confidence in controlling the real interests so as to turn one’s want toward loftier objectives. This is depicted in his analogy of the spirit as a charioteer with a couple of winged horses. One horse is eternal like that of the divine beings and yearns toward thought of profound magnificence. The other horse is mortal and plunges toward earth and toward carnal interests and want. The chariot must get control over the horse of creature crav ings all together for the spirit to increase genuine satisfaction. The natural horse can be attached to the id and the charioteer to the sense of self. On more misfortune grounds, the unfading horse can be connected to the superego . The thoughts of the Greek rationalists were dispersed through the Roman Empire and stayed persuasive until its fall in the fourth century C.E. By at that point, Christianity was the official religion of the Roman Empire, and following the fall of Rome, the Christian church was basically the main enduring organization. Albeit numerous parts of agnostic philosophical idea were incorporated into chapel instructing, whatever didn't fit with Christian religious philosophy was viewed as blasphemous. Medieval Christianity laid accentuation on the following scene than on our joy inside this one. After the European Renaissance (fifteenth - sixteenth hundreds of years), there was an ocean change of social and scholarly qualities. Savants began to return to those plans to make another method of seeing the brain. Despite the fact that brain research as a control didn't exist, reasoning was starting to lay the foundation for what could later become brain research . There are various thinkers who lived during this period, and who made different commitments to the field of brain science. These incorporate Descartes (1596), Benedict de Spinoza (1632-1677), Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), and John Locke (1632-1704). Essentially, Descartes made the idea of the psyche up front of his way of thinking. His well known expression, ‘I think, in this way, I am’ joins the psychological capacity of intuition to the verification of his very existence.Advertising We will compose a custom exposition test on Father of brain science explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More He was a naturalist who deliberately watched thyme characteristic world and even analyzed creatures to look at the connections between the psychological and real procedur es. Truth be told, Cartesian dualism, the idea that the psyche and the body are isolated elements, keeps on moving discussion right up 'til the present time. Another medieval thinker was Spinoza. He was a Sephardic Jew living in the Netherlands however he was later suspended from the Jewish people group for what he named as blasphemous compositions. Spinoza accepted that our primary mental drive was the advancement and insurance of our prosperity and endurance. This thought foreseen transformative brain science. He likewise accepted our three essential feelings to be delight, torment, and want. This signals the condition of our prosperity. This thought foreseen Freud’s delight standard. Spinoza additionally instructed that our intellectual evaluation of a circumstance decides our passionate reaction. Basically, how we consider any occasion will shape how we feel about it. Accordingly, it is conceivable to change our feelings by changing our considerations. This is the essenti al standard behind intellectual treatment, which was spearheaded in the mid-twentieth century by Aaron Beck and Albert Ellis . Another medieval logician, Thomas Hobbes was generally renowned for his political way of thinking and his perspective on life in the status of nature as desolate, horrible, harsh, and brief†. He additionally held thoughts regarding perception and memory by accepting that all our insight originates from our sense impressions. Memories are the buildup of the underlying sense impressions, much the same as waves that proceed considerably after the breeze ceases.Advertising Searching for paper on brain research? We should check whether we can support you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Find out More He noticed that thoughts get connected in memory when the sense impressions initially happen close in time. This idea of affiliated memory turned into the premise of behaviorism, a mental development that emerged in the twentieth century. John Locke was another political scholar of the medieval period. He separated thoughts into two classes to be specific sensation and reflection. When brain science made its mark as an autonomous order, the logical unrest had been two centuries old. Considerably more was thought about the sensory system, the cerebrum and the compound and electrical procedures in the body than could have been longed for by the prior logicians. The logical strategy had kept on advancing and innovation took into consideration modern instruments of estimation. All things considered, when brain research burst on the scene in the late 1880s, its defenders were anxious to demonstrate to this new field as commendable as a science as some other science as some other control. All things considered, headways in the field of brain science changed course from a way of thinking focused control to a progressively logical one. One of the spearheading researchers cum clinician to address mental inquiries utilizing logical methods was Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920). In spite of the fact that he was not the first to receive such a direction, he was the first to build up a logical research center gave explicitly to brain science. This was done in 1879 at the University of Leipzig. Albeit various researchers had made commitments concerning our comprehension of sensation and discernment preceding Wundt’s, none of them viewed himself as an analyst in essence. These included Ernst Weber, Herrmann Helmholtz, and Gustav Fechner. In deed, many have considered Wundt as the dad of brain research. Be that as it may, his direction is seen to be excessively logical. His emphasis was on mapping the mechanics of sensation with scientific exactness. He recognized the parts of the mind and laid the reason for the standard of structuralism. Hence, Wundt is viewed as the dad of brain science. It ought to be noticed that Wundt isn't the establishing father of brain science. This is on the grounds that he didn't find the order, and can, along these lines, not be named as the establishing father. Wundt set up brain research as science discipline as today is known, and that is the reason he is viewed as the dad of the order. Obviously, his thoughts depended on before commitments by researchers; henceforth, he owes quite a bit of his title to other spearheading figures, for example, William James, and Sigmund Freud. Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt was conceived in Neckarau on August 16, 1832. He had Lutheran dad who bent over as his educator and flat mate. He went to a life experience school at 13 years old before continuing to University where he considered medication. He turned into a teacher showed seminars on physiology in the University of Heidelberg. He set up a lab at Leipzig to research human detects. The research center developed to incorporate numerous rooms. Wundt additionally started a diary he called Philosophische Studien, just as classes on physiological brain research. The diary, distributed in 1881, contained test results from his research center. The mental research facility established by Wundt turned into a significant community for mental preparing. Wundt’s understudies later set up research facilities in the significant colleges of Germany and the U.S. Every one of these progressions came about to the foundation of theory as an autonomous science. Wundt Believed that the focal point of brain research ought to be the investigation of the quick, cognizant experience, inferring that individuals detect and see after an appearance in their internal personalities. This view was str

Mozart Concerto in A major free essay sample

A Major In first experience with music class we were relegated to tune in and assess a specific bit of music In request to think about our extraordinary Individuality. For my task I picked Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart 1756-1791 and his work of the Plano concerto No. 23 In A Major explicitly the second development that was made In 1786. In Dalton to tuning in, the piece must be separated and sorted out Into topics or thought processes. Before the finish of the venture we ought to have the option to give a stylish outline of the work by utilizing jargon terms that we have learned through the span of the semester.The piano concerto was written in the old style time frame that endured from 1750 to 1820. Without knowing the year that this piece was made there are numerous different qualities of this piece are from the traditional period. For instance the differentiation of mind-set; all through the three developments there are innumerable state of mind changes because of the sonata and rondo structures and the utilization of minuet and trio. Additionally the overwhelming utilization of the piano was mainstream in the traditional period while It supplanted the harpsichord that was for the most part utilized In the Baroque time of 1600 to 1750.The first day that I chose to tune in to the full piece was November nth, at :pm. In my listening journal I composed that I enjoyed the quick stream the piece had before all else. Despite the fact that this quick or allegro pace is normal in a concerto on account of its course of action of three developments that represent the request for quick moderate quick, it was entertaining to hear it out played on the piano. I likewise saw that the piece had the infrequent trace of despairing however was lost with the arrival of the more glowing subject that the development initially started. I likewise respect this piece since it helps me to remember a few my most loved movies.The two that I can consider are Man on Fire, and Cinderella Man. The explanation that these specific films strike a chord Is that both of the motion pictures have a discouraging or miserable scene that sounds fundamentally the same as the second development of this piece. This piece likewise gave me a recently procured preference for pieces that are vigorously Influenced by the Plano. Thus I undoubtedly will appreciate the piano concertos of Mozart and the numerous works of Frederic Chopin who was the main extraordinary arranger who composed only for the piano as per our course reading (Carnie 225).On November 10 at 5:pm the next day, I chose to just tune in to the principal intense for the sole reason for making the layout altogether simpler. While tuning in to the main development for the second time I saw that it started with two pieces. Anyway on the second work the piano was included into the ensemble. I accept the Instruments in the ensemble were as per the following: woodwind, clarinet, bassoon, and strings. As the piece was distinguished to have two articles, It naturally persuaded that it In actuality Is In sonata form.In the main development the primary topic Is In tonic or home key, after the principal them Is Introduced there Is an edge containing balance from the home key to the new key, For this situation It Is the production of pressure and continuing is the end area in the key of second topic. To talk about how this area of the development caused me to feel I should utilize two words: positive thinking and expectation. In this development it was for the most part Joyful and bright; anyway as I recently referenced it had little bits of melancholy.When the temperament changed from being Joyful to miserable I had no other decision however to feel idealistic due to the repetitive return of the Joyful subject . As the mind-sets kept on exchanging back ND forward they made pressure, and I recalled that when we finding out about sonata structure that if strain is made one can just foresee the returning of the home key. I recollect when I was tuning in to the main topic for the second time that when there was pressure I was foreseeing the arrival of the home key or for this situation the subsequent piece; and I was right.While attempting to remain conscious on November 11 at 7:maam I chose to just tune in to the second development for a similar explanation as the day preceding. Since the subsequent development was moderate and adagio it made the battle altogether increasingly troublesome. In his development the advancement was delayed with long stops between each key yet it Nas dynamic. The subsequent them was treated in another increasingly melancholic way however later changed to a more joyful disposition later in the piece around 2:35 in the subsequent development. This more joyful state of mind likewise brought about the new treatment of the topic. Anyway around 3:50 the discouraging subject returned, from here on in the development it felt that there was a non-forceful fight between the two topics. The diverting part was around 6:15 1 utilized the procedure called word painting to paint an image in my mind that appeared as though the Joyful subject was sneaking on the miserable topic so as to ever toss it in light of the fact that the strings in the piece had heavenly tone shading and seemed like strides. Anyway in the end of the development it felt like neither one of the moods won the fight as a result of what appeared to be the nonattendance of harmony movement and the utilization of broken harmonies was present.To assess the second development all in all, the development appeared to be in ternary structure as we referenced in class. I have reached this resolution as a result of how comparative the first and last segments of the development were and ternary structure is in A-B-A structure. I likewise made the suspicion of t he utilization of Minuet and Trio in the piece regardless of it not being utilized in he third development in light of the fact that in our course reading it peruses the minuet development of an orchestra is composed for tuning in, not moving. It is in triple meter and as a rule in moderate rhythm. The trio (B) is normally calmer than the minuet (An) area and requires less instruments (Sammie 168).All of the recently referenced prerequisites for the piece to be in minuet and trio structure are for the most part obvious. The A development has a moderate rhythm and the trio or B development is calmer and has less instruments rather than the primary development that has the piano with symphonic backup. The manner in which the subsequent development caused me to feel was it felt squeeze I was having a troublesome and unpleasant time; anyway I had loved ones to assist me with traversing the harsh occasions, similar to there was a promising finish to the present course of action. These sentiments turned into a reality over Thanksgiving break when my Grandmother out of the blue past away.My heart brimming with trouble and bits of outrage made me feel lost with a dont care the slightest bit attitude; anyway I must be feelings to anybody including my family the dont care at all mindset stayed with me. That was until I had the help of my society siblings, since the majority of my sibling are more seasoned than me they had experienced this previously and they knew how craftsmanship it tends to be. By indicating me their trust in me I saw the light toward the finish of passage and I realized that I needed to complete this semester solid or the entirety of my difficult work and 30,000 dollars would go to waste.After tuning in to the entire second development it gave me my thought for my innovative reaction; I chose to draw a sketch of Mozart playing the piano while it was an overcast yet radiant day if that is conceivable. Likewise in the sketch I chose to incorporate different melodic images like: notes, bass clefs, sharps, and pads. Nile playing the piano the sun would sparkle away from him onto the flute, clarinet, season, and strings implying that they were the Joyful topic and the piano were the pitiful theme.Also I decided to have melodic notes supplant the downpour drops since it seemed like precipitation with each strike of the key. This equivalent day when I went to class I found out about Chopin and his affection for Aurora Deviant. After she left him it spurred him to create the piece that seemed like precipitation; likewise in class I discovered that Mozart was Chopping most loved author. This information delivered my consideration this was the reason a ton of Chopping nocturnes, prefaces, and dances mounded a lot of like crafted by Mozart since that was potentially where Chopin got his inspiration.While exhausted at home on November 25 at 11 :maam I chose to tune in to the third and last development of the piece. Quickly when I began the piece I realized that it was in rondo structure since it includes a tuneful primary subject (A) which restores a few times in variation with different topics (Sammie 169). There are additionally numerous different reasons why this can be deciphered as in rondo structure since it very well may be utilized as a free piece or a solitary development of an ensemble, like this simplicity. Additionally the piece is exuberant and with no traces of despairing in the third and last movement.Other qualities of this piece are the numerous cases when instruments interfere with one another. I accept that this makes the piece livelier in light of t he fact that t is without request and an ability to read a compass, giving no restriction on energy and fun. Rhea third development bolsters my presumption in light of the fact that the reason for having a vivacious energetic last development is to guarantee a Joyful feeling of decision and fills in as an extraordinary finale. This development caused me to feel significantly more not the same as the other two occasions because of the way that it was much livelier.It made me need to move and drink red wine as they did in the old style time frame. The piece sounded a lot of like a festival from when a war was won or somewhere in the range of ones monetary difficulties were comprehended. It likewise feels like a piece that I would play after I complete the entirety of my school work since I will merit a prize. To bring this listening venture excessively close, I am really thankful that I picked one of Mozart most brilliant works. I am likewise thankful for the experience of considering his work as a result of all the information I have picked up as a glory of doing as such.

Friction tsing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Rubbing tsing - Essay Example The progression of data is basic in connecting with the world in preservation of common assets. Tsing investigates the viable exercises that help in managing the general public to their wants and bad dreams throughout everyday life (Tsing, pg15). The worldwide associations help in reinforcing the purpose and grasp of people groups desires. Private enterprise necessitates that each in the public eye hoard riches and assets as much as possible have the option to get. This idea has prompted ecological debasement since individuals are clearing timberland for settlement. Then again, the unregulated abuse of regular assets is at its pinnacle causing contamination. Freeing from woods has prompted eradication of species that took a very long time to gather (Tsing, pg19). The tree hugger and protectionist are shocked by the natural change. The organizations who abuse the regular assets wastefully lead these changes. The boondocks of private enterprise, legislative issues, and science rely upon the worldwide association as they spread through people groups goal (Tsing, pg38). These boondocks evoke the vitality of individuals in the general public in understanding their all inclusive plans and dreams. Basically, this aides in teaching individuals on widespread objectives. The rise of natural development and activism is a resultant of these boondocks. It stirs individuals observation on globalization and its impacts on the earth, abuse of regular assets, and democratization. Defilement and poor initiative is at fault for absence of advancement in man countries. Additionally, the degenerate and majestic standard is the reason for the ecological corruption and earth change (Tsing, pg17). The nearby individuals who rely upon the timberland for their essential needs are to be faulted since they likewise help these companies in making the scene inhabitable. Decimation of timberland by enterprise is the reason for the development of majority rule development. Governmental issues on preservation of

Togetherness In Baghdad Essay Example for Free

Harmony In Baghdad Essay The article appears to state that decisions in Iraq don't appear to be filling in as an imagined long haul plan of the Americans to influence Iraq’s government into a vote based structure. What appears to come out of the contention is that the appearance of the Americans can be addressed as either intercession for equity or plain intruding. Mediation for equity and majority rules system has been America’s most noteworthy plausible excuse to test their new weapons and rocket direction innovation, while plain intruding can be identified with the imposing business model of the entryway valves of Iraq’s oil wells. To Americans, it could be a success win circumstance, while to individuals of the third world, it is a conundrum. The creator additionally is by all accounts shrinking away from the real issue from another extremely key issue: oil costs. (China’s oil bill in 2005 was evaluated to be US$ 2.0 trillion). The article relates that the Iraquis are not assuming the job they should take since Saddam’s evacuation. It resembles â€Å"God enables the individuals who to help themselves†, awful as it might appear as America might be assuming the God job. Meanwhile, Iraq individuals appear to ride along until somebody makes a move that would be worldwide in sway mindfulness, from that point they can choose their proceeds onward whether the Americans were correct or wrong in coming there. In this way, much the same as for Vietnam, the story goes that American mediation toward the beginning will work, yet not over the long haul. There is no recipe for nothing streaming acknowledgment of America’s intercession. I think the creator is one-sided for American intercession, however is covered up between the lines. (What is genuine is that the Yuan, China’s money, didn't devaluate, even as their oil charge rose.) Long term plans of the U.S. are â€Å"colored† and towards bringing back U.S. economy to high lively and China is by all accounts a rising danger for substitutes for U.S. items. This is only one angle, and there have been numerous different systems, particularly in carrying benefits to U.S. farming. So, the U.S. may pivot its own economy to the detriment of the economies of different countries, yet this is difficult to demonstrate. In conclusion, there is a period limitation for the Americans to build up popular government in Iraq, and if majority rules system doesn't work there and, all together for the time requirement to be expanded, issues on human rights, fellowship, flexibly of help, etc†¦, may consistently be the concentration and blow-ups of articles in U.S. press. The U.S. press alone is hoarded by U.S. satellites. Things being what they are, the place are the issues prompting? The mightiest and most grounded country on the planet (the U.S.) could have committed an error about Saddam (in spite of the fact that as of now he has been attempted and sentenced to death). Let every one of us close our eyes and attempt to envision that such an error can be set aside, take a gander at different issues, and push ahead. That’s life.

Cocaine Withdrawal Symptoms, Timeline, & Treatment

Cocaine Withdrawal Symptoms, Timeline, & Treatment Addiction Drug Use Cocaine Print How Long Does Withdrawal From Cocaine Last? By Elizabeth Hartney, BSc., MSc., MA, PhD Elizabeth Hartney, BSc, MSc, MA, PhD is a psychologist, professor, and Director of the Centre for Health Leadership and Research at Royal Roads University, Canada. Learn about our editorial policy Elizabeth Hartney, BSc., MSc., MA, PhD Medically reviewed by Medically reviewed by Steven Gans, MD on September 03, 2019 Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital. Learn about our Medical Review Board Steven Gans, MD Updated on February 24, 2020 DedMityay/ Getty Images More in Addiction Drug Use Cocaine Heroin Marijuana Meth Ecstasy/MDMA Hallucinogens Opioids Prescription Medications Alcohol Use Addictive Behaviors Nicotine Use Coping and Recovery Cocaine is a highly addictive stimulant drug. While it is sometimes used recreationally, it is illegal in the United States. The National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) reports that nearly 15% of adults in the U.S. have used cocaine at least once during their lifetime.?? Regular use of cocaine can lead to physical dependence, which means that people will experience symptoms of withdrawal once they stop taking the drug. Here is what you can expect if you stop taking cocaine and go into cocaine withdrawal. Overview If you have become dependent or addicted to cocaine, you are likely to experience some withdrawal symptoms when you quit, and these symptoms can become more severe after heavy use. One way of understanding why cocaine users experience withdrawal is that its like taking out a loan of some good feelings while you are high, but then when it is time to repay the debt of those same feelings, you feel much worse during the crash of withdrawal. This is called a rebound effect and is part of your body’s way of maintaining homeostasis. How Long Will Symptoms Last? It is important to remember that the effects of withdrawal, although intense, are not permanent. The initial crash of cocaine withdrawal can vary in time and intensity and can last from hours to days. Some users experience weeks or months of withdrawal symptoms, known as post-acute withdrawal syndrome (PAWS). What to Know About Cocaine Use Signs Symptoms Everyone’s experience with cocaine withdrawal is different, but there are certain common symptoms that are typical of the withdrawal experience. Cocaine Cravings Most people who are withdrawing from cocaine feel a strong desire to take more cocaine. These feelings are known as cravings and are common among people withdrawing from many addictive substances. Cravings are driven by the wish to reduce the symptoms of cocaine withdrawal as well as the desire to re-experience the pleasure of the cocaine high. How to Cope With Withdrawal Cravings Mood Changes Feeling depressed, anxious, or irritable is a normal part of cocaine withdrawal. Although these feelings are often intense during cocaine withdrawal, they tend to pass once the withdrawal stage is over. Fatigue Feeling very tired is a normal part of cocaine withdrawal. In addition to the exhaustion that you naturally feel after the stimulating effects of cocaine, you may have tired yourself out through lack of sleep and energetic activity while you were high on cocaine. Cocaine can mask the discomfort that you usually feel when you are overactive. This will worsen the feelings of tiredness as the effects of cocaine wear off. Sleep Problems One of the frustrations that people can have during cocaine withdrawal is difficulty sleeping. Despite the tiredness, cocaine withdrawal often causes sleep problems, such as vivid and unpleasant dreams, insomnia (having trouble getting to sleep or staying asleep) or hypersomnia (too much sleep). Increased Appetite Increased appetite is a recognized aspect of cocaine withdrawal, and may be exacerbated by not eating properly while you were high on cocaine. However, it is important to support your recovery through eating a healthy diet, and small, manageable amounts, rather than bingeing. Physical Slowing or Agitation People going through cocaine withdrawal often experience a kind of physical slowing down, called psychomotor retardation, or conversely, they can feel physically agitated. How Long Does Cocaine Stay In Your System? Coping Relief While there are no FDA-approved medications to help reduce the effects of cocaine withdrawal, there are self-care strategies you can use to find some relief. The first step is to detox from the drug, a process that can vary depending on how much and how long you have been taking the drug. Compared to some other types of drugs, the cocaine detox process is relatively short, but it can often be intense.   The most important thing to do during this time is to get support from people who understand what you are going through, whether that includes loved ones or medical professionals. As you are going through the detox and withdrawal process, focus on taking care of yourself physically and mentally. Healthy habits like getting regular exercise, eating nutritious food, and getting enough sleep can be a good jump-start toward feeling better.   Warnings Detoxing on your own at home can present risks if your withdrawal symptoms become severe.  While cocaine withdrawal is generally safe, medically-supervised detox may sometimes be necessary. Side effects of withdrawal can sometimes result in severe depression, paranoia, psychosis, or suicidal thoughts. If you are having suicidal thoughts, contact the National Suicide Prevention Lifeline at 1-800-273-8255 for support and assistance from a trained counselor. If you or a loved one are in immediate danger, call 911. People who are experiencing severe cocaine withdrawal symptoms need inpatient treatment or hospitalization as they go through the detox process. Remember that you do not need to go through this alone. Talk to your doctor if you feel that you need extra support during this time either through residential or outpatient treatment. Addiction professionals can offer evidence-based treatment options that will help you develop to overcome drug cravings and prevent future relapses. Long-Term Treatment While the first phase of cocaine withdrawal, often referred to as the crash, typically passes within a few days, people usually continue to experience withdrawal symptoms that include cravings, irritability, and low energy levels for several weeks. Because cocaine use can create lasting changes in the brain, addiction can be hard to treat and relapses can happen.   Long-term treatment for cocaine addiction usually focusing on individual counseling that incorporates behavioral therapy. People learn new skills that will help them fight drug cravings and change underlying thoughts and behaviors that might contribute to drug use.   Contingency management is one treatment option that utilizes motivational incentives to encourage people to abstain from drugs such as cocaine. In exchange for clean drug tests, people can earn vouchers that can be used for items that help encourage healthy choices (such as gym memberships, dinners at local restaurants, etc.). This approach can be particularly effective during the initial phases of treatment to help encourage drug abstinence. Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), particularly when used in conjunction with other treatments, can also be effective for supporting long-term abstinence and relapse prevention.?? Research suggests that the severity of cocaine dependence as well as the frequency of recent use play a role in determining treatment success. Chronic, heavy, and recent use may make recovery more difficult.?? Resources Online and community-based recovery groups can also be helpful during cocaine withdrawal and addiction treatment. Cocaine Anonymous is one such group that utilizes a 12-step approach to achieving and maintaining abstinence over the long-term. Talk to your doctor if you need help going through cocaine withdrawal. You can also call the SAMHSA National Hotline at 1-800-662-4357 or use their online treatment locator to find treatment options in your area. A Word From Verywell Cocaine withdrawal can be difficult, but overcoming drug use is possible. Having a support system that includes friends, family, medical professionals, and treatment resources can help you cope with this challenging phase of your recovery.

Cocaine Withdrawal Symptoms, Timeline, & Treatment

Cocaine Withdrawal Symptoms, Timeline, & Treatment Addiction Drug Use Cocaine Print How Long Does Withdrawal From Cocaine Last? By Elizabeth Hartney, BSc., MSc., MA, PhD Elizabeth Hartney, BSc, MSc, MA, PhD is a psychologist, professor, and Director of the Centre for Health Leadership and Research at Royal Roads University, Canada. Learn about our editorial policy Elizabeth Hartney, BSc., MSc., MA, PhD Medically reviewed by Medically reviewed by Steven Gans, MD on September 03, 2019 Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital. Learn about our Medical Review Board Steven Gans, MD Updated on February 24, 2020 DedMityay/ Getty Images More in Addiction Drug Use Cocaine Heroin Marijuana Meth Ecstasy/MDMA Hallucinogens Opioids Prescription Medications Alcohol Use Addictive Behaviors Nicotine Use Coping and Recovery Cocaine is a highly addictive stimulant drug. While it is sometimes used recreationally, it is illegal in the United States. The National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) reports that nearly 15% of adults in the U.S. have used cocaine at least once during their lifetime.?? Regular use of cocaine can lead to physical dependence, which means that people will experience symptoms of withdrawal once they stop taking the drug. Here is what you can expect if you stop taking cocaine and go into cocaine withdrawal. Overview If you have become dependent or addicted to cocaine, you are likely to experience some withdrawal symptoms when you quit, and these symptoms can become more severe after heavy use. One way of understanding why cocaine users experience withdrawal is that its like taking out a loan of some good feelings while you are high, but then when it is time to repay the debt of those same feelings, you feel much worse during the crash of withdrawal. This is called a rebound effect and is part of your body’s way of maintaining homeostasis. How Long Will Symptoms Last? It is important to remember that the effects of withdrawal, although intense, are not permanent. The initial crash of cocaine withdrawal can vary in time and intensity and can last from hours to days. Some users experience weeks or months of withdrawal symptoms, known as post-acute withdrawal syndrome (PAWS). What to Know About Cocaine Use Signs Symptoms Everyone’s experience with cocaine withdrawal is different, but there are certain common symptoms that are typical of the withdrawal experience. Cocaine Cravings Most people who are withdrawing from cocaine feel a strong desire to take more cocaine. These feelings are known as cravings and are common among people withdrawing from many addictive substances. Cravings are driven by the wish to reduce the symptoms of cocaine withdrawal as well as the desire to re-experience the pleasure of the cocaine high. How to Cope With Withdrawal Cravings Mood Changes Feeling depressed, anxious, or irritable is a normal part of cocaine withdrawal. Although these feelings are often intense during cocaine withdrawal, they tend to pass once the withdrawal stage is over. Fatigue Feeling very tired is a normal part of cocaine withdrawal. In addition to the exhaustion that you naturally feel after the stimulating effects of cocaine, you may have tired yourself out through lack of sleep and energetic activity while you were high on cocaine. Cocaine can mask the discomfort that you usually feel when you are overactive. This will worsen the feelings of tiredness as the effects of cocaine wear off. Sleep Problems One of the frustrations that people can have during cocaine withdrawal is difficulty sleeping. Despite the tiredness, cocaine withdrawal often causes sleep problems, such as vivid and unpleasant dreams, insomnia (having trouble getting to sleep or staying asleep) or hypersomnia (too much sleep). Increased Appetite Increased appetite is a recognized aspect of cocaine withdrawal, and may be exacerbated by not eating properly while you were high on cocaine. However, it is important to support your recovery through eating a healthy diet, and small, manageable amounts, rather than bingeing. Physical Slowing or Agitation People going through cocaine withdrawal often experience a kind of physical slowing down, called psychomotor retardation, or conversely, they can feel physically agitated. How Long Does Cocaine Stay In Your System? Coping Relief While there are no FDA-approved medications to help reduce the effects of cocaine withdrawal, there are self-care strategies you can use to find some relief. The first step is to detox from the drug, a process that can vary depending on how much and how long you have been taking the drug. Compared to some other types of drugs, the cocaine detox process is relatively short, but it can often be intense.   The most important thing to do during this time is to get support from people who understand what you are going through, whether that includes loved ones or medical professionals. As you are going through the detox and withdrawal process, focus on taking care of yourself physically and mentally. Healthy habits like getting regular exercise, eating nutritious food, and getting enough sleep can be a good jump-start toward feeling better.   Warnings Detoxing on your own at home can present risks if your withdrawal symptoms become severe.  While cocaine withdrawal is generally safe, medically-supervised detox may sometimes be necessary. Side effects of withdrawal can sometimes result in severe depression, paranoia, psychosis, or suicidal thoughts. If you are having suicidal thoughts, contact the National Suicide Prevention Lifeline at 1-800-273-8255 for support and assistance from a trained counselor. If you or a loved one are in immediate danger, call 911. People who are experiencing severe cocaine withdrawal symptoms need inpatient treatment or hospitalization as they go through the detox process. Remember that you do not need to go through this alone. Talk to your doctor if you feel that you need extra support during this time either through residential or outpatient treatment. Addiction professionals can offer evidence-based treatment options that will help you develop to overcome drug cravings and prevent future relapses. Long-Term Treatment While the first phase of cocaine withdrawal, often referred to as the crash, typically passes within a few days, people usually continue to experience withdrawal symptoms that include cravings, irritability, and low energy levels for several weeks. Because cocaine use can create lasting changes in the brain, addiction can be hard to treat and relapses can happen.   Long-term treatment for cocaine addiction usually focusing on individual counseling that incorporates behavioral therapy. People learn new skills that will help them fight drug cravings and change underlying thoughts and behaviors that might contribute to drug use.   Contingency management is one treatment option that utilizes motivational incentives to encourage people to abstain from drugs such as cocaine. In exchange for clean drug tests, people can earn vouchers that can be used for items that help encourage healthy choices (such as gym memberships, dinners at local restaurants, etc.). This approach can be particularly effective during the initial phases of treatment to help encourage drug abstinence. Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), particularly when used in conjunction with other treatments, can also be effective for supporting long-term abstinence and relapse prevention.?? Research suggests that the severity of cocaine dependence as well as the frequency of recent use play a role in determining treatment success. Chronic, heavy, and recent use may make recovery more difficult.?? Resources Online and community-based recovery groups can also be helpful during cocaine withdrawal and addiction treatment. Cocaine Anonymous is one such group that utilizes a 12-step approach to achieving and maintaining abstinence over the long-term. Talk to your doctor if you need help going through cocaine withdrawal. You can also call the SAMHSA National Hotline at 1-800-662-4357 or use their online treatment locator to find treatment options in your area. A Word From Verywell Cocaine withdrawal can be difficult, but overcoming drug use is possible. Having a support system that includes friends, family, medical professionals, and treatment resources can help you cope with this challenging phase of your recovery.

Intellectual Property Concerns - Free Essay Example

Introduction In line with the advancement of technology in the field of medicine, there has been a great deal of discovery of human genome related genes and diagnostic methods. Patent law has encouraged inventors to patent their invention so as to avoid exploitation and promote innovation. However, these patents appear to be controversial and have been a hotly debated issue in many countries, such as the BRCA1 gene patents and its diagnostic methods patents. This essay will address the merits and demerits of patent by looking into the relevant legal framework and analyzing it in terms of US, UK and EU case laws. The main focus would be on patentability of genetic diagnostic in vitro test and human genome related genes. Patent Law European Union The general requirements for patent law in Europe is governed by Art 52(1) of the European Patent Convention(EPC) 2000.[1] It provides that any inventions that fulfill the requirement of novelty and inventive step can be patented if they are capable of industrial application.[2] However, the exact concept of invention has not been explicitly defined by the EPC. Nevertheless, it is stated that the invention must possess technical features[3] that relates to a technical field[4], and which involves a technical problem.[5] Thus, it can be seen that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"technicalityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ is a prerequisite in order to be patent eligible. Besides, exclusions that must not be treated as i nventions are provided in Art 52(2)[6] and 52(3)[7]. United Kingdom In UK, the governing statute for patent law is the Patents Act 1977.[8] It is passed to implement the EPC. The essence of patent law is in s1 to s3 of the act, where the criteria for patentability are provided. This act also provides a list of exclusions from patentability that will only be applicable when relevant. According to s 4A(1)(b), diagnostic methods themselves are unable to be patented.[9] This provision is very similar to Art 53(c) of the EPC. United States Patent law in the United States is governed by S 101 of Title 35 United States Code(USC).[10] It provides that for a subject matter to be patentable, it must fall within either of these categories, namely process, machine, manufacture and composition of matter.[11] If one discovers or invents any new and useful abovementioned subject matters, or any new and useful improvement, they might be eligible to acquire a patent subject to the req uirements and conditions.[12] The prerequisite that an invention be à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"technicalà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ is not explicitly present in US law. Also, there is no statutory provision equivalent to Art 52 EPC that provides exclusions from patentability. Nevertheless, the courts have devised some exceptions from patentability, such as law of nature, abstract ideas and basic human knowledge.[13] Patentability of Genes European Union and United Kingdom In order for a gene to be patentable, there must be an invention and it must satisfy the requirements of novelty, inventive step and industrial application. In Netherlands v DIR 98/44/EC, it was confirmed that Art 5(1) of the Directive which states that human body is not patent eligible was valid.[14] Therefore, a mere discovery of the existence of specific DNA sequence in the human body is not an invention and not patentable.[15] It follows that only invention that merges a natural element with a technical process where th e DNA sequence is isolated from its natural environment, or produced for an industrial application, would be capable of being patented.[16] As for the novelty requirement, we must be clear that what is being claimed here is the isolated sequence carried out through a technical process, which is distinct from what was existing, thus making it novel from patent law perspective.[17] The German Antamanid case held that the fact that an isolated substance which functions were not known to someone skilled at the time of application and not capable of being used before the application makes the substance something novel.[18] As for the inventive requirement, it is more difficult to satisfy. A genetic invention would only be regarded as inventive provided it is shown that acquiring the sequence was a technical achievement or that a new property related to the gene is discovered.[19] The use of DNA sequence as a diagnostic tool is said to involve an inventive step.[20] Lastly, the invention must be capable of industrial application. In short, if the patentability requirements are met, an isolated gene such as the BRCA1 is in principle patentable in the EU. United States In line with the three exceptions, a living thing is understood to be patent ineligible. However, in the 1980s, the Supreme Court held in Diamond v Chakrabarty that a genetically engineered bacterium that has different characteristics from the naturally occurring bacterium is patent eligible.[21] From then onwards, naturally occurring human DNA sequences of genes have been granted patent. This has sparked a widespread controversy over the negative impact gene patents could have on genetic testing.[22] Consequently, in Association for Molecular Pathology v Myriads Genetics, the Supreme Court held that the diagnostic genes which are involved in the susceptibility to breast cancer cannot be patented.[23] It held that merely isolating genes that can be found in nature does not render it patent elig ible.[24] The impact of this decision has extended beyond putting an end to the companyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s monopoly over its genetic diagnostic in vitro test. Patentability of Genetic Diagnostic Test European Union and United Kingdom Gene sequence is also used as the basic material of a genetic diagnostic test.[25] Patents are not only claimed in the gene sequence used in such tests, but also for diagnostic testing method itself.[26] Art 53(c) of the EPC provides that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"diagnostic methods practiced on the human bodyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ are not patent eligible.[27] This is because medical and diagnostic methods ought to be available to the medical society, and without the need to obtain a use license.[28] The Enlarged Board in G1/04 sets out a list of steps that must be performed in order to be excluded from patentability and that each and every step must involve an interaction with the human body.[29] Therefore, genetic diagnostic methods such as the in vitro tes t where the steps are performed by in vitro technique on a sample tissue is purely specialized in nature, and lacking direct involvement with the body, hence will not be excluded from patentability under Art 53(c). This is evidenced in T666/05, where the genetic diagnostic in vitro test that determines oneà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s susceptibility to breast cancer is held to be patentable.[30] In terms of patentability requirements, novelty is easily satisfied. However, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"inventive stepà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ could be difficult to be established. Nevertheless, if these tests could be performed based on the application of a single principle that is applicable to all the tests, as automated processes, there is no reason why patents of this kind should be denied despite the difficulty of establishing inventive step.[31] Moreover, even if the process is not inventive, it has been argued that it is inventive to come up with the test, and the development ought to be considered the unex pected effect of DNA.[32] Besides, the utility requirement is also easily satisfied because genetic testing based on the use of partial gene sequence is considered a special utility.[33] Thus, in principle, in vitro diagnostic test involving these technical steps are patentable in Europe, as opposed to tests that are practiced on the human body which are not patentable. United States In the US, there is no provision like Art 53(c). The US Patent and Trademark Office(USPTO) has provided a three-step test for determining whether it is patentable under S 101 of Tittle 35 USC. Firstly, it must be determined whether the subject matter is directed to a method, then whether its focus is on a natural subject matter, and lastly, whether there is presence of additional elements which combine the natural principle into the claimed invention in a way that the natural principle is practically applied.[34] In Mayo Collaborative Services v Promethues Laboratories, the diagnostic claim was held to be a law of nature and not patentable.[35] The process is something that has been well understood, and involves routine and traditional activity that has been practiced by researchers earlier.[36] There is no additional element such as innovation and inventive step that could otherwise make it patentable.[37] The court thought that patent law should not discourage further discovery by restricting the future use of law of nature in an inappropriate manner.[38] Mayo was followed in AMP v USTPO, where the genetic diagnostic in vitro test was held to be patentable ineligible.[39] It was held that the mental act of comparing gene sequences falls under the exception of abstract mental process. Besides, it also failed the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"machine-or-transformation testà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, which requires a particular article to be transformed into a different state or thing.[40] In short, patents for diagnostic genetic in vitro test in the US has been invalidated in this case .[41] Impact of Diagnostic Patents All these while, there has been a lot of controversy surrounding the granting of patents for diagnostic tests. In Europe, it has been argued that in vitro test should also be excluded from patentability. After all, the rationale behind the exclusion for ordinary diagnostic methods is partly due to the accessibility to health care methods, and there seems to be no reason why in vitro methods should be treated differently.[42] Thus, it is argued that in vitro method should also be governed by a similar health care concern. There are also some issues regarding whether patents for diagnostic testing are not overbroad.[43] For example, in the context of BRCA1 patents, broad claims are submitted, not only the gene sequences are claimed, but also a number of other predictive diagnostic tests, and sometimes even some gene therapy claims.[44] This seems to be categorized as reach-through claims and they could cause problems that will be discussed l ater.[45] Also, broad patents that cover almost all likely conceivable tests could stifle investment as there is no further incentive to develop and improve the tests.[46] Argument against Diagnostic Patents Research and Development Patents can have a negative impact on the development of better diagnostic tests and the research into disease, where the patented test is not widely licensed.[47] Even if it is widely licensed, royalty fees will still limit access.[48] The Institute Curie argued that the monopoly will eventually cause a loss of expertise and information among research scientists and physicians because they are prevented from improving diagnostic technologies and method, therefore not under any position to further their research.[49] For example, under Myriadà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s superior position, it enjoys the advantage of receiving all the DNA samples from high-risk individuals and build up its genetic data bank, thus providing itself strong control over main r esearch materials, at the expense of other researchers.[50] Besides, Professor Stratton claimed that the impact of patents on research is unacceptable because most research in the private sector will not be carried out due to the fear that the commercial value of their research will eventually be owned by the company having monopoly in the diagnostic test.[51] A survey conducted among 74 laboratory physicians indicated that 48 percent have not developed a clinical test due to patents, while 25 percent put aside a clinical test they had developed after receiving letters from patent holder claiming infringement.[52] For example, testing for breast cancer, Canavan disease, Charcot-Marie-tooth disease and Alzheimerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s disease have been stopped because of this.[53] Besides, researchers are of the opinion that patents imposed on the use of test can undermine their activities as unknown genetic mutation could well be disclosed by diagnostic testing.[54] Moreover, in o rder to validate and extend the early discovery of a disease gene, there must be an increased clinical studies and this becomes inconvenient and high-priced when access to the patented subject-matter is restricted.[55] Also, Dr Judy Kirk claimed that genetic research would be stifled because the research study is unable to pay for the amount of genetic testing that is ridiculously priced.[56] Patient Access Patent protection can also be a great stumbling block to competition and in turn compromise the benefits that a free market can bring to the industry.[57] From a consumerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s perspective, patents can result in the price for the in vitro test being very expensive because the patent owner is not under any price restraints imposed by competition in the industry.[58] Another reason for the high cost is due to the need to pay for royalties for each patent, known as royalty stacking.[59] This was exactly what happened in Myriad.[60] Thus, access to the test is onl y available to those who can afford to pay the inflated price and this is definitely not in the best interest of society. Apart from this, patents would result in a single provider having a monopoly over the particular genetic test, thus disabling patients from accessing alternative testing as double confirmation or as a second opinion.[61] Patents can potentially cause the concentration of expertise to be vested in one single provider who holds the patent rights, and in turn negatively affect quality and validation, ultimately having a detrimental effect on patient access.[62] Arguments for Patents of Diagnostic Tests As we move beyond the improperly restricted view of patents, we would come to realize that there is also considerable support for patents of diagnostic methods, including in vitro methods. It must be noted that nowadays in vitro diagnostics plays an important role in providing diagnostic solutions for a huge amount of diseases, it is also the initial step in the whole treatment process, and that patents has played an important role in this.[63] Research and Development As has been argued that patents could potentially stifle research and developments in terms of health care improvement, a broad exclusion of patents could also have the same result[64] In fact, this situation is worse as it will happen at an early stage of research while innovators still need to rely heavily on venture capital to fund the years of research.[65] Moreover, the royalty fee paid by academic researchers is much lower than what is paid by commercial researchers.[66] This is in the interest of society as social cost of patents is minimized while the profits of patent holders are increased and this allows a wider market to be exploited.[67] Acknowledging the need to develop such test for health care, investments should be encouraged instead of being deterred.[68] In fact, empirical studies have indicated that exclusivity creates incentives for develop ment of diagnostic tests.[69] Moreover, innovation and invention both demand foresight, planning and organization in the employment of resources, and this arguably could not be achieved without the rights of a patent.[70] Disclosure of Information It should be noted that in the absence of patent protection, part of the know-how may never be disclosed and in turn affect cost of research for people seeking to develop such tests.[71] The rationale behind this is that no company would be willing to invest in creating a valuable database if value of the data can anyhow be acquired by competitors.[72] The SACGHS report has in fact indicated that the absence of patent protection promotes secrecy, and this is not in the interest of society because people are denied new knowledge.[73] Increased Investments It has been argued that patent protection would lead to exorbitant cost for test. However, these social costs should be tolerated as they are outweighed by the market advant age of an increased investment in innovation arising from patents.[74] This is in the public interest, thereby justifying it as having a net social benefit.[75] Besides, academic commentators have opined that high profitable returns resulting from the use of patent is what attracts investors to devote to long run commitments.[76] Moreover, without a patent system, the problem of free-riding will result in a market that undersupplies inventions.[77] The patent system focuses on correcting this market failure.[78] On a side note, in the very recent case of Ambry v Myriad, it is ruled that before Myriadà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s patent claims has been struck down, other competing test on the market are still allowed.[79] Thus it can be seen that competition in the genetic testing market is necessary for the benefits of consumers.[80] Patient Access Despite various arguments on the negative impact of patents on patient access, evidence has shown that these patents are not really a proble m in Europe because they are generally ignored.[81] In the US, Barbara Weber has also expressed that patents such as the Myriad diagnostic patent has not in any way affected patient access.[82] It might be true that Myriad has the only clinical test, it is also the only lab which is capable of doing it right with of the resources they own.[83] On the other hand, one of the biggest problems that patients who need a diagnostic testing service have to struggle with is insurance reimbursement.[84] The patent system provides incentives for patent holders to collaborate with insurance companies and overcome this problem.[85] Besides, with regards to BRCA testing, patents have empowered patients to take control of their genetic information, considering the fact that medical establishment has limited patient access to this information.[86] Solutions Despite the potential for patents to have negative impact on various issues discussed above, there are several ways to deal with the o bjections against diagnostic patents in particular. Research Exemption Patent law in Europe has the feature of research exemption that permits researchers to use a patented material without infringing the rights of the patent holder. In fact, most countries in Europe have such provisions that achieve the same effect.[87] This also applies to both the DNA sequence and diagnostic or screening methods thus exempting fundamental research from any infringement. Therefore, the concern about patent having a stifling effect on research is theoretical, at least in Europe. However, it must be noted that exact scope of these exemption differs between countries, and such provision does not exist in the US.[88] Government Intervention While it is true that patents would cause the price of the diagnostic test to increase, acting against it predominantly for this reason will however not be an appropriate strategy because patent law is not a price regulating instrument.[89] The denial o f patent would not necessarily make the price lower even though it admittedly would do so in certain cases.[90] Thus, the more effective strategy of influencing the cost of such health care services is government intervention such as imposing maximum prices, funding and organization, as seen in many European countries.[91] Conclusion In conclusion, the patentability of gene and diagnostic methods differs in the US and Europe. Patents on diagnostic test have advantages as well as disadvantages. Nevertheless, there is sufficient evidence that the patent system has functioned satisfactorily for the dissemination of knowledge and the development of technology, and has no doubt benefited the society ultimately.[92] Therefore, any disadvantages seems to have been outweighed by the advantages discussed above. In all, the disadvantages may not be a good reason to overhaul the patent system for diagnostic tests, as these problems may also be solved by ways discussed above. [1] European Patent Convention 2000, Art 52(1) [2] ibid [3] ibid, Rule 43(1) [4] ibid, Rule 43(1)(a) [5] ibid, Rule 42(1)(c) [6] ibid, Art 52(2) [7] ibid, Art 52(3) [8] Patents Act 1977 [9] ibid, s 4A(1)(b). [10] 35 United States Code 101 [11] ibid, MPEP s 2104 [12] ibid, MPEP s 2106 [13] ibid [14] Case C-377/98 Kingdom of the Netherlands v European Parliament and Council of the European Union [2001] ECR I-7079 [15] Sven Bostyn, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Patenting DNA Sequences (Polynucleotides) and Scope of Protection in the European Union : An Evaluationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2004) https://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/indprop/docs/invent/patentingdna_en.pdf accessed 4 May 2015 [16] ibid [17] ibid [18] Antamanid BPatG, GRUR 1978, as cited in Sven Bostyn, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Patenting DNA Sequences (Polynucleotides) and Scope of Protection in the European Union : An Evaluationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2004) https://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/indprop/do cs/invent/patentingdna_en.pdf [19] Stephen Merrill, Richard Levin, Mark Myers, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"A Patent System for the 21st Centuryà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ www.nap.edu/html/patentsystem/0309089107.pdf accessed 23 April 2015 [20] Sven Bostyn, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Patenting DNA Sequences (Polynucleotides) and Scope of Protection in the European Union : An Evaluationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2004) https://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/indprop/docs/invent/patentingdna_en.pdf accessed 4 May 2015 [21] Diamond v Chakrabarty [1980] 447 US 303 [22] Naomi Hawkins, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"An exception to infringement for genetic testingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2012) 43(6) IIC 641-661 [23] Association for Molecular Pathology v Myriads Genetics [2013] WL 2631062 [24] ibid [25] Sven Bostyn, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Patenting DNA Sequences (Polynucleotides) and Scope of Protection in the European Union : An Evaluationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2004) https://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/indprop/docs/invent/patentingdna_en.pdf a ccessed 4 May 2015 [26] ibid [27] European Patent Convention 2000, Art 53(c) [28] Sven Bostyn, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Patenting DNA Sequences (Polynucleotides) and Scope of Protection in the European Union : An Evaluationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2004) https://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/indprop/docs/invent/patentingdna_en.pdf accessed 4 May 2015 [29] [30] [31] Sven Bostyn, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Patenting DNA Sequences (Polynucleotides) and Scope of Protection in the European Union : An Evaluationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2004) https://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/indprop/docs/invent/patentingdna_en.pdf accessed 4 May 2015 [32] ibid [33] ibid [34] USTPO, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Evaluating Subject Matter Eligibility under 35 USC 101à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ https://www.uspto.gov/sites/default/files/patents/law/exam/101_training_aug2012.pdf accessed 25 April 2015 [35] Mayo Collaborative Services v Promethues Laboratories [2012] 566 US ___ [36] ibid [37] ibid [38] ibid [39] Association for Molecular Pathology v Myriads Genetics [2013] WL 2631062 [40] Case Report, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"United States of America: Patent Act, 35 U.S.C. s.101 AMP v USPTO and Myriadà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2011) 42(8) IIC 976 [41] ibid [42] Sven Bostyn, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Patenting DNA Sequences (Polynucleotides) and Scope of Protection in the European Union : An Evaluationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2004) https://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/indprop/docs/invent/patentingdna_en.pdf accessed 4 May 2015 [43] ibid [44] ibid [45] ibid [46] ibid [47] David Booton, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Patents for Diagnostic Tools : An Economic Analysisà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2013) 3 IPQ 187-213 [48] SACGHS, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Gene Patents and Licensing Practices and their impact on Patient Access to Genetic Testsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ https://osp.od.nih.gov/sites/default/files/SACGHS_patents_report_2010.pdf accessed 1 May 2015 [49] Matthew Rimmer, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Myriad Genetics : Patent Law and Genetic Testingà ¢Ã¢â€ š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2003) 25 EIPR 20-33 [50] ibid [51] ibid [52] College of American Pathologists, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Statement to the Secretaryà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Advisory Committee on Genetics, Health and Societyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ https://www.cap.org/apps/docs/advocacy/comments/SACGHS_comments_gene_patents.pdf accessed 28 April 2015 [53] ibid [54] David Booton, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Patents for Diagnostic Tools : An Economic Analysisà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2013) 3 IPQ 187-213 [55] ibid [56] Matthew Rimmer, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Myriad Genetics : Patent Law and Genetic Testingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2003) 25 EIPR 20-33 [57] David Booton, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Patents for Diagnostic Tools : An Economic Analysisà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2013) 3 IPQ 187-213 [58] ibid [59] Naomi Hawkins, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"An exception to infringement for genetic testingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2012) 43(6) IIC 641-661 [60] Association for Molecular Pathology v Myriads Genetics [2013] WL 2631062 [61] Naomi Hawkins, à ¢Ã¢â €š ¬Ã‹Å"An exception to infringement for genetic testingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2012) 43(6) IIC 641-661 [62] ibid [63] Sven Bostyn, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Patenting DNA Sequences (Polynucleotides) and Scope of Protection in the European Union : An Evaluationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2004) https://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/indprop/docs/invent/patentingdna_en.pdf accessed 4 May 2015 [64] ibid [65] Christopher Holman, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"The Critical Role of Patents in the Development, Commercialization, and Utilization of Innovative Genetic Diagnostic Testsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ https://cpip.gmu.edu/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/Holman-Christoher-The-Critical-Role-of-Patents-in-Genetic-Diagnostic-Tests.pdf accessed 4 May 2014 [66] David Booton, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Patents for Diagnostic Tools : An Economic Analysisà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2013) 3 IPQ 187-213 [67] ibid [68] Sven Bostyn, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Patenting DNA Sequences (Polynucleotides) and Scope of Protection in the European Union : An Evaluati onà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2004) https://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/indprop/docs/invent/patentingdna_en.pdf accessed 4 May 2015 [69] SACGHS, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Gene Patents and Licensing Practices and their impact on Patient Access to Genetic Testsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ https://osp.od.nih.gov/sites/default/files/SACGHS_patents_report_2010.pdf accessed 1 May 2015 [70] David Booton, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Patents for Diagnostic Tools : An Economic Analysisà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2013) 3 IPQ 187-213 [71] Sven Bostyn, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Patenting DNA Sequences (Polynucleotides) and Scope of Protection in the European Union : An Evaluationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2004) https://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/indprop/docs/invent/patentingdna_en.pdf accessed 4 May 2015 [72] Christopher Holman, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"The Critical Role of Patents in the Development, Commercialization, and Utilization of Innovative Genetic Diagnostic Testsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ https://cpip.gmu.edu/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/Holman-Christoher- The-Critical-Role-of-Patents-in-Genetic-Diagnostic-Tests.pdf accessed 4 May 2014 [73] SACGHS, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Gene Patents and Licensing Practices and their impact on Patient Access to Genetic Testsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ https://osp.od.nih.gov/sites/default/files/SACGHS_patents_report_2010.pdf accessed 1 May 2015 [74] David Vaver, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Sprucing Up Patent Lawà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1879206 accessed 1 May 2015 [75] ibid [76] Zorina Khan, Kenneth Sokoloff, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Institutions and Technological Innovation During Early Economic Growth : Evidence from the Great Inventors of the United States, 1790-1930à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2004) American Economic Review 395-401 [77] David Vaver, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Sprucing Up Patent Lawà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1879206 accessed 1 May 2015 [78] David Booton, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Patents for Diagnostic Tools : An Economic Analysisà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2013) 3 IPQ 187-213 [79] John Conley, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"District Court Denies Myriadà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Preliminary Injunction Against Ambryà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ https://www.genomicslawreport.com/index.php/2014/03/18/district-court-denies-myriads-preliminary-injunction-against-ambry accessed 27 April 2015 [80] ibid [81] Naomi Hawkins, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"An exception to infringement for genetic testingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2012) 43(6) IIC 641-661 [82] Matthew Rimmer, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Myriad Genetics : Patent Law and Genetic Testingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2003) 25 EIPR 20-33 [83] ibid [84] Christopher Holman, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"The Critical Role of Patents in the Development, Commercialization, and Utilization of Innovative Genetic Diagnostic Testsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ https://cpip.gmu.edu/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/Holman-Christoher-The-Critical-Role-of-Patents-in-Genetic-Diagnostic-Tests.pdf accessed 4 May 2014 [85] ibid [86] ibid [87] Sven Bostyn, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"A test too far? A Critical Analysis of the non-patentability of Diagnostic Methods and Consequences of BRCA1 Gene Type Patents in Europeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2003) 5(4) BSLR 111 [88] https://osp.od.nih.gov/sites/default/files/SACGHS_patents_report_2010.pdf accessed 1 May 2015 [89] ibid [90] ibid [91] Naomi Hawkins, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"An exception to infringement for genetic testingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2012) 43(6) IIC 641-661 [92] Sven Bostyn, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"A test too far? A Critical Analysis of the non-patentability of Diagnostic Methods and Consequences of BRCA1 Gene Type Patents in Europeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2003) 5(4) BSLR 111